The term was also commonly used to refer to roadsteads A roadstead is a place outside a harbor where a ship can lie at anchor. It is an enclosed area with an opening to the sea, narrower than a bay or gulf. It has a surface that cannot be confused with an estuary. It can be created artificially by jetties or dikes. Natural roadsteads offer shelter from storms and are frequently used for naval bases, waterways that lent themselves to use by shipping. Notable examples being Hampton Roads Hampton Roads is the name of both a body of water and the region of land areas which surround it in southeastern Virginia. Hampton Roads is notable for its year-round ice-free harbor, for United States Navy, Coast Guard, Air Force, NASA, Marines, and Army facilities, shipyards, coal piers, and hundreds of miles of waterfront property and beaches,, in Virginia The Commonwealth of Virginia is an American state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. The state is known as the "Old Dominion" and sometimes as "Mother of Presidents", because it is the birthplace of eight U.S. presidents. The geography of the state is shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay,, the seaway Barry Roads in the Bristol Channel and Castle Roads 'Castle Roads' is the primary channel by which vessels enter Castle Harbour, Bermuda, from the Atlantic Ocean. Although little used, today, except by pleasure boats, Castle Harbour was once an important anchorage, and an access route used by ships to reach the still important St. George's Harbour. The infilling of waterways between St. David's, in Bermuda Bermuda is a British overseas territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. Located off the east coast of the United States, it is situated around 1,770 kilometres (1,100 mi) northeast of Miami, Florida, and 1,350 kilometres (840 mi) south of Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. The nearest landmass is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, about 1,030 kilometres (640 (also formerly in Virginia).

In urban areas An urban area is an area with an increased density of human-created structures in comparison to the areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets roads may diverge through a city A city is a relatively large and permanent settlement, particularly a large urban settlement. Although there are no agreed on technical definitions distinguishing a city from a town within general English language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law — for example an article of or village A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet, but smaller than a town or city. Though often located in rural areas, the term urban village is also applied to certain urban neighbourhoods, such as the West Village in Manhattan, New York City and the Saifi Village in Beirut, Lebanon. Villages are normally permanent, and be named as streets A street is a paved public thoroughfare in the built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A street can be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but is more often paved with a hard, durable surface such as concrete, cobblestone or brick, serving a dual function as urban space easement An easement is a non-possessory interest to use real property in possession of another person for a stated purpose. An easement is considered as a property right in itself at common law and is still treated as a type of property in most jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions, another term for easement is equitable servitude, although easements do and route.[4] Economics Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek οἰκονομία from οἶκος (oikos, "house") + νόμος (nomos, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house(hold)". Current economic and society A society is a body of humans generally seen as a community or group of humans - or other organisms of a single species - that is outlined by the bounds of cultural identity, social solidarity, functional interdependence, or eusociality. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive depend heavily on efficient roads. In the European Union (EU) The European Union is an economic and political partnership among 27 member states primarily in Europe that is committed to regional integration. It was established by the Treaty of Maastricht on 1 November 1993, upon the foundations of the pre-existing European Economic Community. With a population of almost 500 million, the EU generates an 44% of all goods In economics, a good is any object or service that increases utility, directly or indirectly. It should not to be confused with the adjective "good", as used in a moral or ethical sense. A good that cannot be used by consumers directly, such as an "office building" or "capital equipment", can also be referred to as a are moved by trucks A truck or lorry (British English) is a motor vehicle commonly used for carrying goods and materials. Some light trucks/lorries are similar in size to a passenger automobile. Commercial transportation trucks/lorries or fire trucks can be large and can also serve as a platform for specialized equipment over roads and 85% of all persons The term person in common usage means an individual human being. In the fields of law, philosophy, medicine, and others, the term also has specialised context-specific meanings are transported by cars An automobile or motor car is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor. Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run primarily on roads, to have seating for one to eight people, to typically have four wheels, and to be constructed principally for the transport, buses A bus is a road vehicle designed to carry passengers. A bus can generally seat a maximum of anywhere from 8 to 300 passengers. Buses are the most widely used form of public transportation,[citation needed] although they are also used in tourism and as private transport or coaches on roads.[5]

Interstate 80 Interstate 80 is the second-longest Interstate Highway in the United States (after I-90). It connects downtown San Francisco, California, to Teaneck, New Jersey, a suburb of New York City. I-80 is the interstate that most closely approximates the Lincoln Highway, the first road across America. Some sections of I-80 lie directly on top of the old, the second-longest U.S. Interstate highway The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways, commonly called the Interstate Highway System , is a network of limited-access highways (also called freeways or expressways) in the United States that is named for President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who championed its formation. The entire system, as of 2006[update], has a, runs from California California ( /kælɪˈfɔrnjə/ ) is a state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east, Arizona to the southeast, and, to the south, the Mexican state of Baja California. California is the most populous U.S. state. Its four largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, to New Jersey New Jersey ( /nuːˈdʒɝːzi/ ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north by New York, and to the east, the Hudson River, Sandy Hook Bay, Long Island and the Atlantic Ocean. Delaware borders New Jersey only on the southwestern side, and Pennsylvania lies to the west of New Jersey Castle Roads 'Castle Roads' is the primary channel by which vessels enter Castle Harbour, Bermuda, from the Atlantic Ocean. Although little used, today, except by pleasure boats, Castle Harbour was once an important anchorage, and an access route used by ships to reach the still important St. George's Harbour. The infilling of waterways between St. David's, in Bermuda Bermuda is a British overseas territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. Located off the east coast of the United States, it is situated around 1,770 kilometres (1,100 mi) northeast of Miami, Florida, and 1,350 kilometres (840 mi) south of Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. The nearest landmass is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, about 1,030 kilometres (640. An example of the maritime application of the word roads.

The United States The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the has the largest network of roadways of any country with 6,430,366 kilometres (3,995,644 mi) (2005). The Republic of India India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of 7,517 has the second largest road system in the world with 3,383,344 kilometres (2,102,312 mi) (2002). People's Republic of China b. ^ Information for mainland China only. The Special Administrative Regions of the PRC: Hong Kong, Macau are excluded. In addition, the territories under the jurisdiction of the Republic of China, commonly known as Taiwan, are also excluded is third with 1,870,661 kilometres (1,162,375 mi) of roadway (2004).[6] When looking only at expressways An expressway is a divided highway for high-speed traffic with at least partial control of access. The degree of access allowed varies between countries and even between regions within the same country. In some jurisdictions, expressways are divided arterial roads with limits on the frequency of driveways and intersecting cross-streets. In other the National Trunk Highway System The Expressway Network of the People's Republic of China is one of the longest in the world. The network is also known as National Trunk Highway System . The total length of China's expressways is 60,300 km at the end of 2008, the world's second longest only after the United States and roughly equals that in Canada, Germany, and France combined (NTHS) in People's Republic of China b. ^ Information for mainland China only. The Special Administrative Regions of the PRC: Hong Kong, Macau are excluded. In addition, the territories under the jurisdiction of the Republic of China, commonly known as Taiwan, are also excluded has a total length of 45,000 kilometres (28,000 mi) at the end of 2006, and 60,300 km at the end of 2008, second only to the United States with 90,000 kilometres (56,000 mi) in 2005.[7][8]

Contents

Historical road construction

A Greek street from the 3rd to 4th century BC in Velia Velia is the Italian name of the ancient town of Elea located on the territory of the comune of Ascea, Salerno, Campania, Italy in a geographical sub-area named Cilento. Originally founded by the Greeks as Hyele in ancient Magna Graecia around 538–535 BC, it is best known as the home of the philosophers Parmenides and Zeno of Elea, as well as, Italy Italy /ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia), officially the Italian Republic (Italian: Repubblica Italiana), is a country located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe and on the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares its northern, Alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. The. The Porta Rosa was the main street of Elea. It is paved with limestone blocks, with a gutter for the drainage of rain water. Main article: History of road transport The first forms of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over tracks that often followed game trails, such as the Natchez Trace. In the Stone Age humans did not need constructed tracks in open country. The first improved trails would have been at fords, mountain passes and through swamps. The first improvements would have

That the first pathways were the trails A trail is a path or road used for walking, cycling, cross-country skiing, or other activities. Some trails are off-limits to everyone other than hikers, and a few trails allow motorized vehicles made by animals has not been universally accepted, arguing that animals do not follow constant paths.[3] Others believe that some roads originated from following animal trails.[9][10] The Icknield Way The Icknield Way is a long distance footpath in East Anglia. The Icknield Way is part of four long distance footpaths which, when combined, run from Lyme Regis, Dorset to Hunstanton, Norfolk and are referred to as the Greater Ridgeway. To the west the track, now usually referred to as The Ridgeway, can be detected as far west as Wiltshire, where is given as an example of this type of road origination, where man and animal both selected the same natural line.[11] By about 10,000 BC, rough pathways were used by human travelers.[3]

A paved Roman road in Pompeii, Italy.

Road transport economics

Main article: Transport economics A road in Mumbai, India. Most of the roads across the world are built and maintained by the public sector The Transfăgărăşan in Romania, first built as a military road.

Transport economics is a branch of economics that deals with the allocation of resources within the transport sector and has strong linkages with civil engineering. Transport economics differs from some other branches of economics in that the assumption of a spaceless, instantaneous economy does not hold. People and goods flow over networks at certain speeds. Demands peak. Advanced ticket purchase is often induced by lower fares. The networks themselves may or may not be competitive. A single trip (the final good from the point-of-view of the consumer) may require bundling the services provided by several firms, agencies and modes.

Although transport systems follow the same supply and demand theory as other industries, the complications of network effects and choices between non-similar goods (e.g. car and bus travel) make estimating the demand for transportation facilities difficult. The development of models to estimate the likely choices between the non-similar goods involved in transport decisions "discrete choice" models led to the development of the important branch of econometrics, and a Nobel Prize for Daniel McFadden.[20]

In transport, demand can be measured in numbers of journeys made or in total distance traveled across all journeys (e.g. passenger-kilometres for public transport or vehicle-kilometres of travel (VKT) for private transport). Supply is considered to be a measure of capacity. The price of the good (travel) is measured using the generalised cost of travel, which includes both money and time expenditure. The effect of increases in supply (capacity) are of particular interest in transport economics (see induced demand), as the potential environmental consequences are significant.

Road building and maintenance is an area of economic activity that remains dominated by the public sector (though often through private contractors).[21] Roads (except those on private property that are not accessible to the general public) are typically paid for by taxes (often raised through levies on fuel),[22] though some public roads, especially freeways are funded by tolls.[23]

Environmental aspects

Air pollution along Pasadena Highway in Los Angeles, United States Promenade in Florence, Italy

Air pollution

Motor vehicles operating on roads contribute emissions, particularly for congested city street conditions and other low speed circumstances. Of particular concern are particulate emissions from diesel engines. Concentrations of air pollutants and adverse respiratory health effects are greater near the road than at some distance away from the road.[24] Road dust kicked up by vehicles may trigger allergic reactions.[25] Sand applied to icy roads can be ground up by traffic into fine particulates and contribute to air pollution.

Water pollution

Urban runoff from roads and other impervious surfaces is a major source of water pollution.[26] Rainwater and snowmelt running off of roads tends to pick up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, trash and other pollutants. Road runoff is a major source of nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are created as combustion byproducts of gasoline and other fossil fuels.[27]

De-icing chemicals and sand can run off into roadsides, contaminate groundwater and pollute surface waters.[28] Road salts (primarily chlorides of sodium, calcium or magnesium) can be toxic to sensitive plants and animals.[29] Sand can alter stream bed environments, causing stress for the plants and animals that live there.

Noise pollution

Motor vehicle traffic on roads generate noise pollution especially at higher operating speeds, near intersections and on uphill sections. Therefore, considerable noise health effects are expected from road systems used by large numbers of motor vehicles. Noise mitigation strategies exist to reduce sound levels at nearby sensitive receptors. The idea that road design could be influenced by acoustical engineering considerations first arose about 1973.[30]

Driving on the right or the left

A sign on Australia's Great Ocean Road reminding foreign motorists to keep left. Main article: Driving on the left or right

Traffic flows on the right or on the left side of the road depending on the country.[31] In countries where traffic flows on the right, traffic signs are mostly on the right side of the road, roundabouts and traffic circles go counter-clockwise, and pedestrians crossing a two-way road should watch out for traffic from the left first.[32] In countries where traffic flows on the left, the reverse is true.

About 34% of the world by population drive on the left, and 66% keep right. By roadway distances, about 28% drive on the left, and 72% on the right,[33] even though originally most traffic drove on the left worldwide.[34]

Construction

It has been suggested that Carriageway be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)
A road being torn up. Surveyor at work with a leveling instrument. Asphalt layer and roller Sub-base layer composed of cement-based material being applied during construction of the M8 motorway in Ireland.

Road construction requires the creation of a continuous right-of-way, overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel.[35] (pg15) and may be required to meet standards set by law[36] or official guidelines.[37] The process is often begun with the removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of embankments, bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation) and followed by the laying of pavement material. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road building.[38] [39]

After design, approval, planning, legal and environmental considerations have been addressed alignment of the road is set out by a surveyor. [17] The Radii and gradient are designed and staked out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount of cut and fill.[37] (page34) Great care is taken to preserve reference Benchmarks [37] (page59)

Roadways are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed joints in the road easement with runoff coefficients and characteristics adequate for the land zoning and storm water system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse, creek, river or the sea for drainage discharge. [37] (page38 to 40)

A Borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a water source should be located near or in reasonable distance to the road construction site. Approval from local authorities may be required to draw water or for working (crushing and screening) of materials for construction needs. The top soil and vegetation is removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation area not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety reasons. [37] (page 53 to 56 )

Road construction on Marquette Avenue in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States

Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can begin. Trees in the road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation may be mulched and put aside for use during reinstatement. The topsoil is usually stripped and stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and holes filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area to be consistent with the untouched surrounding areas.[37] (page 66 to 67 )

Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable material is discovered it is removed, moisture content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to 90% relative compaction. Generally blasting of rock is discouraged in the road bed. When a depression must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is compacted after the topsoil has been removed. The fill is made by the "compacted layer method" where a layer of fill is spread then compacted to specifications, the process is repeated until the desired grade is reached.[37] (page 68 to 69 )

Typical pavement strata for a heavily traveled road

General fill material should be free of organics, meet minimum California bearing ratio (CBR) results and have a low plasticity index. Select fill (sieved) should be composed of gravel, decomposed rock or broken rock below a specified Particle size and be free of large lumps of clay. Sand clay fill may also be used. The road bed must be "proof rolled" after each layer of fill is compacted. If a roller passes over an area without creating visible deformation or spring the section is deemed to comply. [37] (page 70 to 72 )

The completed road way is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other natural surface. The type of road surface is dependent on economic factors and expected usage. Safety improvements like Traffic signs, Crash barriers, Raised pavement markers, and other forms of Road surface marking are installed.

According to a May 2009 report by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and TRIP -- a national transportation research organization -- driving on rough roads costs the average American motorist approximately $400 a year in extra vehicle operating costs. Drivers living in urban areas with populations more than 250,000 are paying upwards of $750 more annually because of accelerated vehicle deterioration, increased maintenance, additional fuel consumption, and tire wear caused by poor road conditions.

Duplication

When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplication[40] or twinning. The original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from single track to double track, the new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway.

Maintenance

Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration is primarily due to accumulated damage from vehicles, however environmental effects such as frost heaves, thermal cracking and oxidation often contribute.[41] According to a series of experiments carried out in the late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test, it was empirically determined that the effective damage done to the road is roughly proportional to the 4th power of axle weight .[42] A typical tractor-trailer weighing 80,000 pounds (36.287 t) with 8,000 pounds (3.6287 t) on the steer axle and 36,000 pounds (16.329 t) on both of the tandem axle groups is expected to do 7,800 times more damage than a passenger vehicle with 2,000 pounds (0.907 t) on each axle. Potholes on roads are caused by rain damage and vehicle braking or related construction works.

Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life. In some UK countries the standard design life is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30 year milestones. [43] Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-year designs). When pavement lasts longer then its intended life, it may have been overbuilt, and the original costs may have been too high. When a pavement fails before its intended design life, the owner may have excessive repair and rehabilitation costs. Many concrete pavements built since the 1950s have significantly outlived their intended design lives. [44] Some roads like Chicago, Illinois's "Wacker Drive", a major two-level viaduct in downtown area are being rebuilt with a designed service life of 100 years. [45]

Virtually all roads require some form of maintenance before they come to the end of their service life. Pro-active agencies continually monitor road conditions and apply preventive maintenance treatments as needed to prolong the lifespan of their roads. Technically advanced agencies monitior the road network surface condition with sophisticated equipment such as laser/inertial Profilometers. These measurements include road curvature, cross slope, unevenness, roughness, rutting and texture (roads). This data is fed into a pavement management system, which recommends the best maintenance or construction treatment to correct the damage that has occurred.

Maintenance treatments for asphalt concrete generally include crack sealing, surface rejuvenating, fog sealing, micro-milling and surface treatments. Thin surfacing preserves, protects and improves the functional condition of the road while reducing the need for routing maintenance, leading to extended service life without increasing structural capacity.[46]

Failure to maintain roads properly can create significant costs to society, in a 2009 report released by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (USA) about 50% of the roads in the USA are in bad condition with urban areas worse. The report estimates that urban drivers pay an average of $746/year on vehicle repairs while the average US motorist pays about $335/year. In contrast, the average motorist pays about $171/year in road maintenance taxes (based on 600 gallons/year and $0.285/gallon tax).

Terminology

The A22(T) near Summer Hill, East Sussex, England, United Kingdom Road in Kaluga Oblast, Russia

See also

Roads portal

References

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  35. ^ "Kitsap County Road Standards 2006" (Doc). Kitsap County, Washington. 2006. http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&ct=res&cd=4&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kitsapgov.com%2FPW%2Fpdf%2FRevised%2520Road%2520Standards.doc&ei=CR4oRqeuCIuYgQOonvGyDQ&usg=AFrqEzc34dXvKRHE9kUtBqd8RfqzfNI2rA&sig2=nrd9wbiu_sCE4shhBWX6jw. Retrieved on 2007-04-20.
  36. ^ "Washington State County Road Standards". Chapter 35.78 RCW requires cities and counties to adopt uniform definitions and design standards for municipal streets and roads. Municipal Research & Services Center of Washington. 2005. http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/Transpo/stand/CoRdStand.aspx. Retrieved on 2007-04-20.
  37. ^ a b c d e f g h Shire of Wyndham East Kimberly (October 2006). "Guidelines for rural road design and construction technical specifications" (PDF). Western Australia (The Last Frontier). http://www.thelastfrontier.com.au/Publications/06K027005-061019-Rural%20Road%20Technical%20Specification%20complete%20(3).pdf. Retrieved on 2007-04-24.
  38. ^ "Road Building Equipment". Constructing roads into forestry work areas. Caterpillar. 2007. http://www.cat.com/cda/layout?m=62323&x=7. Retrieved on 2007-04-20.
  39. ^ "Volvo Construction Equipment (Europe)". Building the cities, towns, streets, highways and bridges in your neighborhood and in communities around the globe. Volvo. 2007. http://www.volvo.com/constructionequipment/europe/en-gb/work+solutions/government/introduction.htm. Retrieved on 2007-04-20.
  40. ^ Glossary: Princes Highway, Traralgon Bypass - Planning Assessment Report at The State of Victoria
  41. ^ "ISAP 9th Conference Titles & Abstracts (#09044)". Effects of Frost Heave on the Longitudinal Profile of Asphalt Pavements in Cold Regions. International Society for Asphalt Pavements. August 2002. http://www.asphalt.org/Pubs/9th_conf_abst.html. Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
  42. ^ The Motorway Achievement: Frontiers of Knowledge and Practice. Thomas Telford. 2002. pp. 252. ISBN 0727731971. http://books.google.com/books?id=7Yqxyefv-VAC&pg=PA252&ots=Yvl1puH55J&dq=4th+power+of+axle+weight&sig=qNz9nc_S0HgJDblEONAZXcS605g.
  43. ^ O'Flaherty, Coleman A. (2002). Highways: The Location, Design, Construction & Maintenance of Road Pavements. Elsevier. pp. 252. ISBN 0750650907. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ren4sWQ3jKkC&pg=PA252&ots=9b8s3lyHfg&dq=Pavements+are+designed+for+an+expected+service+life&sig=Wl0QDnn4_4vaXb-TQI8TiBarVAw.
  44. ^ "Road Map to the Future". United States Department of Transportation - Federal Highway Administration. July/August 2002. http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/02jul/10.htm. Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
  45. ^ ISG Resources, Inc (December 2003). "Fly Ash Concrete Design for Chicago’s 100-Year Road Structure" (PDF). Case Study. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/osw/conserve/c2p2/cases/wacker-dr.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
  46. ^ "Thin Surfacing - Effective Way of Improving Road Safety within Scarce Road Maintenance Budget" (PDF). Paper for presentation at the 2005 Annual Conference of the Transportation Association of Canada in Calgary, Alberta. Transportation Association of Canada. 2005. http://www.tac-atc.ca/english/pdf/conf2005/s16/uzarowski2.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-05-14.

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Roads and Junctions
Types of road
High-speed
Access via interchanges Autobahn · Autocesta · Autopista · Autostrada · Autostrasse · Auto-estrada · Freeway · Motorway · Semi-highway · HQDC
Other access Arterial road · Collector/distributor road · Distributor road · Dual carriageway/divided highway · Express-collector setup · Expressway · Farm-to-market road · Highway · Link road · Parkway · Super two · Two-lane expressway · 2+1 road · 2+2 road
Low-speed
Standard Boulevard · Business route · Frontage road · Regional road · Road · Single carriageway · Street
Low traffic Alley · Backroad · Cul-de-sac · Driveway · Lane · Primitive road · Range road
Other Concurrency · Concession road · Private highway · Special route · Toll road
Surfaces Asphalt concrete · Brick · Chipseal · Cobblestone · Concrete · Corduroy · Dirt · Gravel · Ice · Macadam · Oiled (bitumen) · Plank · Tarmac
List of road types by features
Road junctions
Interchanges (grade-separated) Cloverleaf · Diamond · Directional T · Diverging diamond · Parclo · Trumpet · SPUI · Stack · Three-level diamond · Raindrop · Roundabout interchange
Intersections (at-grade) Box junction · Continuous flow · Hook turn · Jughandle · Michigan left · Quadrant roadway · Roundabout · Superstreet · 3-way junction · Traffic circle · Bowtie
Types of road junction
Interchanges (grade-separated) Cloverleaf · Diamond · Directional T · Diverging diamond · Dumbbell · Parclo · Raindrop · Roundabout interchange · SPUI · Stack · Three-level diamond · Trumpet
Intersections (at-grade) Bowtie · Box junction · Continuous flow · Hook turn · Jughandle · Michigan left · Quadrant roadway · Roundabout · Superstreet · 3-way junction · Traffic circle

Categories: Streets and roads | Roads | Road infrastructure | Types of roads

 

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'Road' News
Barn fire closes Oley Turnpike Road - Allentown Morning Call
news.google.com
Barn fire closes Oley Turnpike Road

Allentown Morning Call

Oley Turnpike Road between Quarry Road and Route 662 remains close this morning in Berks County while firefighters remain on the scene of a large barn fire ...

Barn fire in Oley Township closes portion of Oley Turnpike Road Reading Eagle



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Fri Jul 10 08:25:29 2009
'Road' Images
waiting to cross road jpg
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Waiting to cross North Bridge Road

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'Road' Blogs
NSALP Maryland: Hundreds of Niggers Riot at Belair Road Skateland ...
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NSALP Maryland: Hundreds of Niggers Riot at Belair Road Skateland ...

NSALP Maryland

Sat, 11 Jul 2009 16:38:00 GM

Several eyewitness reports of the nigger riot at the Belair . Road. Skateland last night: What happened at Skateland tonight? Date: 2009-07-10, 11:26PM We were driving down Belair Rd (from north towards 695) around 9:45pm, when it looked ...

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Sun Jul 12 14:58:16 2009
'Road' Answers
How do you make rocky road ice cream without an ice cream maker?
Q. I want to make Rocky Road ice cream but dont have an ice cream maker . Anyone got a good recipe for this? Or any ice cream??
Asked by Lisa - Wed Dec 13 00:08:43 2006 - - 5 Answers - 0 Comments

A. Found this online. But I actually did it a few years ago in summer school (chemistry): Materials List per group of 3. 240 ml milk. Use chocolate is you want. Use skim or 1% as a preference. I choose the whole fat milk, myself. Why eat ice cream if it isn't going to clog an artery or three? 35 ml sugar. Preference is BROWN sugar. 0.25 tsp vanilla. That's 1.5 ml for us SI fans... Chocolate Chips, almonds, walnuts, pralines, oreo cookies, fudge, peanut butter, liver, tofu or any other optional flavor. 45 ml rock salt. Yep, the stuff you melt snow with. Ice. cubed or crushed. 3.8 L ZipLoc freezer bag. That's a gallon... 0.95 L ZipLoc. That's a quart... Cups to eat final product. 4 or 6 oz Dixie's work fine. Spoons. Unless you are a… [cont.]
Answered by Annieo - Wed Dec 13 00:18:42 2006

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Fri Jul 10 11:01:06 2009
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