The foot is an anatomical Anatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy (zootomy) and plant anatomy (phytotomy). In some of its facets anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, through common roots in structure found in many vertebrates Vertebrates are members of the subphylum Vertebrata, chordates with backbones or spinal columns. About 58,000 species of vertebrates have been described. Vertebrata is the largest subphylum of chordates, and contains many familiar groups of large land animals. Vertebrates comprise cyclostomes, bony fish, sharks and rays, amphibians, reptiles,. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion Animal locomotion, which is the act of self-propulsion by an animal, has many manifestations, including running, jumping and flying. Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, or a suitable microhabitat, and to escape predators. For many animals the ability to move is essential to survival and, as a result, selective. In many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg As an anatomical animal structure it is used for locomotion. The distal end is often modified to distribute force . Most animals have an even number of legs made up of one or more segments or bones, generally including claws or nails.

Human foot

Anatomy

The human foot and ankle is a strong and complex mechanical structure containing 26 bones (some people have more), 33 joints (20 of which are actively articulated), and more than a hundred muscles, tendons, and ligaments.^[1]

An anthropometric study of 1197 North American adult Caucasian males (men age 35.5 years) found that a man's foot length was 26.3 cm with a standard deviation of 1.2 cm.^[2]

The foot can be subdivided into the hindfoot, the midfoot, and the forefoot:

The hindfoot is composed of the talus The talus bone or astragalus is a bone in the tarsus of the foot that forms the lower part of the ankle joint through its articulations with the lateral and medial malleoli of the two bones of the lower leg, the tibia and fibula. Within the tarsus, it articulates with the calcaneus below and navicular in front. Through these articulations, it or ankle bone and the calcaneus In humans, the calcaneus or heel bone is a bone of the tarsus of the foot which constitute the heel. In some other animals, it is the point of the hock or heel bone. The two long bones of the lower leg, the tibia The tibia, shinbone, or shankbone is the larger and stronger of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates , and connects the knee with the ankle bones. The tibia is named for the greek aulos flute, also known as a tibia. It is commonly recognised as the strongest weight bearing bone in the body and fibula The fibula or calf bone is a bone located on the lateral side of the tibia, with which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones, and, in proportion to its length, the most slender of all the long bones. Its upper extremity is small, placed toward the back of the head of the tibia, below the level of the knee-joint, and, are connected to the top of the talus to form the ankle In human anatomy, the ankle joint is formed where the foot and the leg meet. The ankle, or talocrural joint, is a synovial hinge joint that connects the distal ends of the tibia and fibula in the lower limb with the proximal end of the talus bone in the foot. The articulation between the tibia and the talus bears more weight than between the. Connected to the talus at the subtalar joint In human anatomy, the subtalar joint, also known as the talocalcaneal joint, is a joint of the foot. It occurs at the meeting point of the talus and the calcaneus, the calcaneus, the largest bone of the foot, is cushioned inferiorly by a layer of fat.^[1]

The five irregular bones of the midfoot, the cuboid, navicular, and three cuneiform They are located between the navicular bone and the first, second and third metatarsal bones and are medial to the cuboid bone bones, form the arches of the foot The arches of the foot are formed by the tarsal and metatarsal bones and, strengthened by ligaments and tendons, allow the foot to support the weight of the body in the erect posture with the least weight which serves as a shock absorber. The midfoot is connected to the hind- and fore-foot by muscles and the plantar fascia.^[1]

The forefoot is composed of five toes and the corresponding five proximal long bones forming the metatarsus The metatarsus or metatarsal bones are a group of five long bones in the foot located between the tarsal bones of the hind- and mid-foot and the phalanges of the toes. Lacking individual names, the metatarsal bones are numbered from the medial side : the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth metatarsal. The metatarsals are analogous to the. Similar to the fingers of the hand, the bones of the toes are called phalanges In anatomy, phalanx bones are those that form the fingers and toes. In primates such as humans and monkeys, the thumb and big toe have two phalanges, while the other fingers and toes consist of three. Phalanges are classified as long bones and the big toe In tetrapods the hallux is the innermost toe of the foot. Despite its name it may not be the longest toe on the foot of some individuals. It is counted as digit I (one). The name stems from the Latin for the same, similar to the pollex, which refers to the thumb, the corresponding digit of the hand. The hallux is considered to be the most has two phalanges while the other four toes have three phalanges. The joints between the phalanges are called interphalangeal and those between the metatarsus and phalanges are called metatarsophalangeal (MTP).^[1]

Skeleton

• tibia The tibia, shinbone, or shankbone is the larger and stronger of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates , and connects the knee with the ankle bones. The tibia is named for the greek aulos flute, also known as a tibia. It is commonly recognised as the strongest weight bearing bone in the body, fibula The fibula or calf bone is a bone located on the lateral side of the tibia, with which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones, and, in proportion to its length, the most slender of all the long bones. Its upper extremity is small, placed toward the back of the head of the tibia, below the level of the knee-joint, and
• tarsus In tetrapods, the tarsus are the cluster of bones in the foot between the tibia and fibula and the metatarsus. The bones of the tarsus do not belong to individual toes, whereas those of the metatarsus do. The joint between the tibia and fibula and the tarsus is referred to as the ankle joint: talus The talus bone or astragalus is a bone in the tarsus of the foot that forms the lower part of the ankle joint through its articulations with the lateral and medial malleoli of the two bones of the lower leg, the tibia and fibula. Within the tarsus, it articulates with the calcaneus below and navicular in front. Through these articulations, it, calcaneus In humans, the calcaneus or heel bone is a bone of the tarsus of the foot which constitute the heel. In some other animals, it is the point of the hock, cuneiformes They are located between the navicular bone and the first, second and third metatarsal bones and are medial to the cuboid bone, cuboid, and navicular
• metatarsus The metatarsus or metatarsal bones are a group of five long bones in the foot located between the tarsal bones of the hind- and mid-foot and the phalanges of the toes. Lacking individual names, the metatarsal bones are numbered from the medial side : the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth metatarsal. The metatarsals are analogous to the: first Its proximal articular surface is of large size and kidney-shaped; its circumference is grooved, for the tarsometatarsal ligaments, and medially gives insertion to part of the tendon of the Tibialis anterior; its plantar angle presents a rough oval prominence for the insertion of the tendon of the Peronæus longus, second, third, fourth, and fifth metatarsal bone
• phalanges

There can be many sesamoid bones Sesamoid bones are found in locations where a tendon passes over a joint, such as the hand, knee, and foot. Functionally, they act to protect the tendon and to increase its mechanical effect. The presence of the sesamoid bone holds the tendon slightly farther away from the center of the joint and thus increases its moment arm. Sesamoid bones also near the metatarsophalangeal joints, although they are only regularly present in the distal portion of the first metatarsal bone Its proximal articular surface is of large size and kidney-shaped; its circumference is grooved, for the tarsometatarsal ligaments, and medially gives insertion to part of the tendon of the Tibialis anterior; its plantar angle presents a rough oval prominence for the insertion of the tendon of the Peronæus longus.^[3]

Arches

The human foot has two longitudinal Standard anatomical terms of location are employed in science which deal with the anatomy of animals to avoid ambiguities which might otherwise arise. They are not language-specific, and thus require no translation. They are universal terms that may be readily understood by zoologists who speak any language arches and a transverse arch maintained by the interlocking shapes of the foot bones, strong ligaments, and pulling muscles during activity. The slight mobility of these arches when weight is applied to and removed from the foot makes walking and running more economical in terms of energy. As can be examined in a footprint, the medial longitudinal arch curves above the ground. This arch stretches from the heel bone over the "keystone" ankle bone to the three medial metatarsals. In contrast, the lateral longitudinal arch is very low. With the cuboid serving as its keystone, it redistributes part of the weight to the calcaneus and the distal end of the fifth metatarsal. The two longitudinal arches serve as pillars for the transverse arch which run obliquely across the tarsometatarsal joints. Excessive strain on the tendons and ligaments of the feet can result in fallen arches or flat feet Flat feet is an informal reference to a medical condition in which the arch of the foot collapses, with the entire sole of the foot coming into complete or near-complete contact with the ground. In some individuals (an estimated 20–30% of the general population) the arch simply never develops in one foot (unilaterally) or both feet (bilaterally).^[4]

Muscles

The muscles acting on the foot can be classified into extrinsic muscles, those originating on the anterior or posterior aspect of the lower leg, and intrinsic muscles, originating on the dorsal or plantar aspects of the foot.

Extrinsic

All muscles originating on the lower leg except the popliteus muscle The popliteus muscle in the leg is used to unlock the knee by laterally rotating the femur on the tibia during a closed chain movement are attached to the bones of the foot. The tibia and fibula and the interosseous membrane separate these muscles into anterior and posterior groups, in their turn subdivided into subgroups and layers. ^[5]

Anterior group

Extensor group: tibialis anterior In human anatomy, the tibialis anterior is a muscle that originates in the upper two-thirds of the lateral surface of the tibia and inserts into the medial cuneiform and first metatarsal bones of the foot. Its acts to invert the foot originates on the proximal half of the tibia and the interosseous membrane and is inserted near the tarsometatarsal joint of the first digit. In the non-weight-bearing leg tibialis anterior flexes the foot dorsally and lift its medial edge (supination Supination is a position of either the forearm or foot; in the forearm when the palm faces anteriorly, or faces up . Supination in the foot occurs when a person appears "bow-legged" with their weight supported primarily on the anterior of their feet). In the weight-bearing leg it brings the leg towards the back of the foot, like in rapid walking. Extensor digitorum longus It arises from the lateral condyle of the tibia; from the upper three-fourths of the anterior surface of the body of the fibula; from the upper part of the interosseous membrane; from the deep surface of the fascia; and from the intermuscular septa between it and the Tibialis anterior on the medial, and the Peronæi on the lateral side arises on the lateral tibial condyle and along the fibula to be inserted on the second to fifth digits and proximally on the fifth metatarsal. The extensor digitorum longus acts similar to the tibialis anterior except that it also dorsiflexes the digits. Extensor hallucis longus The Extensor hallucis longus is a thin muscle, situated between the Tibialis anterior and the Extensor digitorum longus that functions to extend the big toe, dorsiflex the foot, and assists with foot inversion originates medially on the fibula and is inserted on the first digit. As the name implies it dorsiflexes the big toe and also acts on the ankle in the unstressed leg. In the weight-bearing leg it acts similar to the tibialis anterior. ^[6]

Peroneal group: peroneus longus arises on the proximal aspect of the fibula and peroneus brevis below it on the same bone. Together, their tendons pass behind the lateral malleolus. Distally, peroneus longus crosses the plantar side of the foot to reach its insertion on the first tarsometatarsal joint, while peroneus brevis reaches the proximal part of the fifth metatarsal. These two muscles are the strongest pronators and aid in plantar flexion. Longus also acts like a bowstring that braces the transverse arch of the foot. ^[7]

Posterior group

The superficial layer of posterior leg muscles is formed by the triceps surae The triceps surae is a pair of muscles located at the calf - the gastrocnemius and the soleus. These muscles both insert into the calcaneus, the bone of the heel of the human foot, and form the major part of the muscle of the back part of the lower leg, commonly known as the calf muscle and the plantaris Plantaris is a vestigial structure and one of the superficial muscles of the posterior crural compartment of the leg. The triceps surae consists of the soleus In humans and some other mammals, the soleus is a powerful muscle in the back part of the lower leg . It runs from just below the knee to the heel, and is involved in standing and walking. It is closely connected to the gastrocnemius muscle and some anatomists consider them to be a single muscle, the triceps surae. It's name is derived from the and the two heads of the gastrocnemius In humans, the gastrocnemius muscle is a very powerful superficial muscle that is in the back part of the lower leg and also called the calf. It runs from its two heads just above the knee to the heel, and is involved in standing, walking, running and jumping. Along with the soleus muscle it forms the calf muscle. Its function is plantar flexing. The heads of gastrocnemius arise on the femur The femur, or thigh bone, is the most proximal bone of the leg in vertebrates capable of walking or jumping, such as most land mammals, birds, many reptiles such as lizards, and amphibians such as frogs. In vertebrates with four legs such as dogs and horses, the femur is found only in the rear legs, proximal to the condyles, and soleus arises on the proximal dorsal parts of the tibia and fibula. The tendons of these muscles merge to be inserted onto the calcaneus as the Achilles tendon The Achilles tendon , also known as the calcaneal tendon or the tendo calcaneus, is a tendon of the posterior leg. It serves to attach the plantaris, gastrocnemius (calf) and soleus muscles to the calcaneus (heel) bone. Plantaris originates on the femur proximal to the lateral head of the gastrocnemius and its long tendon is embedded medially into the Achilles tendon. The triceps surae is the primary plantar flexor and its strength becomes most obvious during ballet dancing. It is fully activated only with the knee extended because the gastrocnemius is shortened during knee flexion. During walking it not only lifts the heel, but also flexes the knee, assisted by the plantaris.^[8]

In the deep layer of posterior muscles tibialis posterior It originates on the inner posterior borders of the tibia and fibula. It is also attached to the interosseous membrane, which attaches to the tibia and fibula arises proximally on the back of the interosseous membrane and adjoining bones and divides into two parts in the sole of the foot to attach to the tarsus. In the non-weight-bearing leg, it produces plantar flexion and supination, and, in the weight-bearing leg, it proximates the heel to the calf. flexor hallucis longus The Flexor hallucis longus muscle is a muscle of the leg. It is one of the deep muscles of the posterior compartment of the leg. The other deep muscles of the leg are flexor digitorum longus and tibialis posterior. FHL is the largest and most powerful of these deep muscles arises on the back of the fibula (i.e. on the lateral side), and its relatively thick muscle belly extends distally down to the flexor retinaculum The laciniate ligament is a strong fibrous band, extending from the tibial malleolus above to the margin of the calcaneus below, converting a series of bony grooves in this situation into canals for the passage of the tendons of the Flexor muscles and the posterior tibial vessels and tibial nerve into the sole of the foot where it passes over to the medial side to stretch across the sole to the distal phalanx of the first digit. The popliteus The popliteus muscle in the leg is used to unlock the knee by laterally rotating the femur on the tibia during a closed chain movement is also part of this group, but, with its oblique course across the back of the knee, does not act on the foot. ^[9]

Intrinsic

On the back (top) of the foot, the tendons of extensor digitorum brevis The extensor digitorum brevis is found on the dorsal aspect of the foot. It arises with the extensor hallucis brevis muscle from the calcaneus bone; many consider these two muscles are a single common muscle and extensor hallucis brevis The extensor hallucis brevis is essentially the medial part of the extensor digitorum brevis muscle. Some anatomists have debated whether these two muscles are distinct entities lie deep to the system of long extrinsic extensor tendons. They both arise on the calcaneus and extend into the dorsal aponeurosis Aponeuroses are layers of flat broad tendons. They have a shiny, whitish-silvery color, and are histologically similar to tendons, but are very sparingly supplied with blood vessels and nerves. When dissected, aponeuroses are papery, and peel off by sections. The primary regions with thick aponeurosis is in the ventral abdominal region, the dorsal of digits one to four, just beyond the penultimate joints. They act to dorsiflex the digits. ^[10]

Similar to the intrinsic muscles of the hand, there are three groups of muscles in the sole of foot, those of the first and last digits, and a central group:

Muscles of the big toe In tetrapods the hallux is the innermost toe of the foot. Despite its name it may not be the longest toe on the foot of some individuals. It is counted as digit I (one). The name stems from the Latin for the same, similar to the pollex, which refers to the thumb, the corresponding digit of the hand. The hallux is considered to be the most: abductor hallucis The Abductor hallucis lies along the medial border of the foot and covers the origins of the plantar vessels and nerves stretches medially along the border of the sole, from the calcaneus to the first digit. Below its tendon, the tendons of the long flexors pass through the tarsal canal In the tunnel, the nerve splits into three different paths. One nerve continues to the heel, the other two (medial plantar nerve and lateral plantar nerve) continue on to the bottom of the foot. It is an abductor and a weak flexor, and also helps maintain the arch of the foot. flexor hallucis brevis The Flexor hallucis brevis arises, by a pointed tendinous process, from the medial part of the under surface of the cuboid bone, from the contiguous portion of the third cuneiform, and from the prolongation of the tendon of the Tibialis posterior which is attached to that bone arises on the medial cuneiform bone and related ligaments and tendons. An important plantar flexor, it is crucial for ballet dancing. Both these muscles are inserted with two heads proximally and distally to the first metatarsophalangeal joint. Adductor hallucis is part of this group, though it originally formed a separate system (see contrahens.) It has two heads, the oblique head originating obliquely across the central part of the midfoot, and the transverse head originating near the metatarsophalangeal joints of digits five to three. Both heads are inserted into the lateral sesamoid bone of the first digit. Adductor hallucis acts as a tensor of the plantar arches and also adducts the big toe and then might plantar flex the proximal phalanx. ^[11]

Muscles of the little toe: Stretching laterally from the calcaneus to the proximal phalanx of the fifth digit, abductor digiti minimi form the lateral margin of the foot and is the largest of the muscles of the fifth digit. Arising from the base of the fifth metatarsal, flexor digiti minimi is inserted together with abductor on the first phalanx. Often absent, opponens digiti minimi originates near the cuboid bone and is inserted on the fifth metatarsal bone. These three muscles act to support the arch of the foot and to plantar flex the fifth digit. ^[12]

Central muscle group: The four lumbricales arise on the medial side of the tendons of flexor digitorum longus and are inserted on the medial margins of the proximal phalanges. Quadratus plantae originates with two slips from the lateral and medial margins of the calcaneus and inserts into the lateral margin of the flexor digitorum tendon. It is also known as flexor accessorius. Flexor digitorum brevis arise inferiorly on the calcaneus and its three tendons are inserted into the middle phalanges of digits two to four (sometimes also the fifth digit). These tendons divide before their insertions and the tendons of flexor digitorum longus pass through these divisions. Flexor digitorum brevis flexes the middle phalanges. It is occasionally absent. Between the toes, the dorsal and plantar interossei stretch from the metatarsals to the proximal phalanges of digits two to five. The plantar interossei adducts and the dorsal interossei abducts these digits and are also plantar flexors at the metatarsophalangeal joints. ^[13]

Medical aspects

Due to their position and function, feet are exposed to a variety of potential infections and injuries, including athlete's foot, bunions, ingrown toenails, Morton's neuroma, plantar fasciitis, plantar warts and stress fractures. In addition, there are several genetic disorders that can affect the shape and function of the feet, including a club foot or flat feet.

This leaves humans more vulnerable to medical problems that are caused by poor leg and foot alignments. Also, the wearing of shoes, sneakers and boots can impede proper alignment and movement within the ankle and foot. For example, high heels are known to throw off the natural weight balance (this can also affect the lower back). For the sake of posture, flat soles and heels are advised.

A doctor who specializes in the treatment of the feet practices podiatry and is called a podiatrist. A pedorthist specializes in the use and modification of footwear to treat problems related to the lower limbs.

Sweaty feet

Since feet have 250,000 sweat glands, they tend to sweat more than other parts of the body. Sweaty feet is an uncomfortable condition that causes social and functional problems in every day life. For instance, shoes can be ruined, it is difficult to wear sandals or for women to wear heels, because there is a tendency to slip. Furthermore, sweaty feet may lead to foot odor and fungal infections, and such fungal infections can also spread to the nails. ^[14]

Causes

Causes of sweaty feet range from very simple situations to very complex ones. For instance, a change in the weather, being it hot or cold, can be enough to start excessive sweating.

Synthetic materials used in footwear are another cause of sweaty feet. These materials may lead to excessive perspiration and increased bacteria which can result in sweaty and smelly feet.

It is common for teenagers to experience sweaty, smelly feet related to the change in hormonal levels. ^[15]

Physical and emotional stress can trigger sweaty feet, for example after standing on your feet all day.

Some studies also suggest that this condition may be genetically inherited, although there is no strong evidence in this sense. This condition may also occur as part of a medical condition such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism, menopause or obesity.

Treatment and prevention

Different actions can help control sweaty feet. A daily shower or bath with an anti-bacterial soap regulates the amount of bacteria on the skin. Bacteria is responsible for smell, not the sweat. After bathing, feet have to be thoroughly dried, especially between toes, to prevent the growth of bacteria and fungi. ^[16]

The market offers specialist powders, sprays, and creams especially made for excessively sweaty feet that help to keep the feet dry and conditioned.The powders have certain chemical that help in absorbing the sweat in the feet to such an extent that the sweat vanishes as soon as it appears.^[17]

Wearing clean cotton socks and changing shoes is also advisable. Repetitive use of the same pair of shoes may increase the problem, because shoes do not dry completely. Also, it is recommended to wear leather shoes. The use of removable medicated insoles is highly recommended. ^[18]

Not wearing shoes seems to do the trick, though cold climate and rough surfaces might become an issue.

Evolutionary variations

A paw is the soft foot of a mammal, generally a quadruped, that has claws or nails. A hard foot is called a hoof.

Depending on style of locomotion, animals can be classified as plantigrade (sole walking), digitigrade (toe walking), or ungulate (nail walking).

The metatarsals are the bones that make up the main part of the foot in humans, and part of the leg in large animals or paw in smaller animals. The number of metatarsals are directly related to the mode of locomotion — five digits being the most primitive^{[citation needed]} setup, with many larger animals having their digits reduced to two (elk, cow, sheep) or one (horse). The metatarsal bones of feet and paws are tightly grouped compared to, most notably, the human hand where the thumb metacarpal diverges from the rest of the metacarpus. ^[19]

See also

• Flat feet
• Foot binding
• Foot fetishism
• Foot gymnastics
• Foot washing
• Footsie
• Gait analysis
• Pes cavus
• Sole (foot)
• Runner's toe, repetitive injury seen in runners
• Ball (anatomy)

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Podiatry Channel, Anatomy of the foot and ankle
2. ^ Hawes MR, Sovak D (July 1994). "Quantitative morphology of the human foot in a North American population". Ergonomics 37 (7): 1213–26. doi:10.1080/00140139408964899. PMID 8050406.
3. ^ Platzer 2004, p 220
4. ^ Mareb-Hoehn 2007, pp 244-45
5. ^ Platzer 2004, p 256
6. ^ Platzer 2004, p 258
7. ^ Platzer 2004, p 260
8. ^ Platzer 2004, p 262
9. ^ Platzer 2004, p 264
10. ^ Platzer 2004, p 268
11. ^ Platzer 2004, pp 270-72
12. ^ Platzer 2004, p 272
13. ^ Platzer 2004, p 274
14. ^ "Sweaty Feet". http://www.sweaty-palms.com/sweaty_foot.html. Retrieved May 11,2010.
15. ^ "Sweaty Feet & Foot Odour". http://www.foothealthcare.com/html/footprobs/problem/sweatyfeet.htm. Retrieved May 11,2010.
16. ^ "Sweaty Feet? How to Cope". http://www.hyperhidrosisweb.com/sweaty-feet.html. Retrieved May 11,2010.
17. ^ "Stop Sweating from Sweaty Feet". http://www.forsweatyfeet.com/stopsweating/. Retrieved May 11,2010.
18. ^ "Sweaty Feet (Hyperhidrosis)". http://www.afootabove.co.uk/sweaty_feet.htm. Retrieved May 11,2010.
19. ^ France 2008, p 537

References

• France, Diane L. (2008). Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification: A Color Atlas. CRC Press. ISBN 1420062867. http://books.google.com/?id=Z-C1jKNgjmQC&pg=PA532.
• Marieb, Elaine Nicpon; Hoehn, Katja (2007). Human anatomy & physiology. Pearson Education. ISBN 0321372948. http://books.google.com/?id=x1uEB68iitwC.
• Platzer, Werner (2004). Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. 1: Locomotor System (5th ed.). Thieme. ISBN 3-13-533305-1.
• "Anatomy of the foot and ankle". Podiatry Channel. http://www.podiatrychannel.com/anatomy/index.shtml. Retrieved August 2009.

External links

• Foot at the Open Directory Project
• Anatomical illustrations

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